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In the case of Covid-19, neutralising antibodies that recognise the virus bind to the spike protein on its surface, which it uses to enter cells. In particular, it relies on neutralising antibodies, which defend the body from pathogens by sticking to their outer surface and preventing them from interacting with their intended targets, such as the cells that line the nose, throat or lungs.

While effective immunity is usually provided by a combination of white blood cells вЂ“ such as B and T cells вЂ“ along with antibodies, sterilising immunity is typically all about the latter. It's also possible to be infected with pertussis, hepatitis B, mumps, and (often, but not always) influenza, regardless of whether you have been vaccinated вЂ“ though all these immunisations are highly effective at preventing people from developing serious symptoms or needing to be hospitalised. How Covid-19 might evolve in the future.What we know about the new Covid-19 variants.How effective is a single dose of the Covid-19 vaccines?.'But only a minority of those people who get the germ go down with meningitis because they have immunity to it.' 'Two meningitis vaccines can have two very different effects on whether you can spread the disease,' says Keith Neal, professor emeritus of epidemiology atВ the University of Nottingham. In one study of university students in the United Kingdom, the vaccine had no effect on the proportion of people harbouring the pathogen four weeks later. They can hide out in the nose or the back of the throat, from where they are able to infect others via sneezing, coughing, kissing, or sharing cigarettes or utensils. However, several have been shown to still allow people to 'carry' the bacteria involved. The three given in the US вЂ“ MCV4,В MPSV4 and MenB вЂ“ can together prevent 85-90% of disease cases. For the kind caused by the bacteria Neisseria meningitidis, there are many vaccines available for the tens of different strains. The latter is the aspiration of all vaccine research, but surprisingly rarely achieved.

The other is 'sterilising immunity', which can thwart infections entirely, and even prevent asymptomatic cases. One is so-called 'effective' immunity, which can prevent a pathogen from causing serious disease, but can't stop it from entering the body or making more copies of itself. There are two main types of immunity you can achieve with vaccines. Occasionally, they can even start epidemics. As a result, vaccinated people can unknowingly carry and spread pathogens. In fact, most vaccines don't fully protect against infection, even if they can block symptoms from appearing. It's likely that he did have some immunity вЂ“ like the other vaccinated children, he developed relatively mild symptoms with no complications вЂ“ but he was still able to carry the virus and transmit it to others.

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What might seem most surprising in this case is that the accidental super-spreader had received a full course of the MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccine. When scientists analysed what had happened, they suggested that the chavrusa style of learning might have allowed for 'particularly efficient transmission of mumps virus'. In all, the outbreak lasted a year, and at least 3,502 people developed the disease. By the time the programme ended, 22 others had been infected, along with three adults.ДЄs the students went back to their homes, the virus spread to Brooklyn and Rockland County, then on to Ocean County and Orange County. The 400 children in attendance spent hours each day engaging in prolonged face-to-face contact вЂ“ specifically, a kind of Orthodox Jewish education involving facing a study partner, a chavrusa, across a narrow table, while analysing and debating text from the Talmud. Meanwhile, the religious course continued. He had mumps, a respiratory infection spread by contact with droplets in the air. Later that week, while attending a religious education programme in Sullivan County, New York, he developed a mysterious swelling of his salivary glands. An 11-year-old boy returned to the US from the UK вЂ“ and inadvertently brought something with him.

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